Dyslexia Knowledge Base

Dyslexia Deep Dive

Reading is complex. It requires our brains to connect letters to sounds, put those sounds in the right order, and pull the words together into sentences and paragraphs we can read and comprehend.

People with dyslexia have trouble matching the letters they see on the page with the sounds those letters and combinations of letters make. And when they have trouble with that step, all the other steps are harder.

Dyslexic children and adults struggle to read fluently, spell words correctly and get their thoughts onto paper, among other challenges. But these difficulties have no connection to overall intelligence. In fact, dyslexia is an unexpected difficulty in reading in an individual who has the intelligence to be a much better reader. While people with dyslexia are slow readers, they often, paradoxically, are very fast and creative thinkers with strong reasoning abilities.

Dyslexia affects 20 percent of the population and represents 80– 90 percent of all those with learning disabilities. Scientific research shows differences in brain connectivity between dyslexic and typical reading children, providing a neurological basis for why reading fluently is a struggle for those with dyslexia.

Dyslexia can’t be “cured” – it is lifelong. But with the right supports, dyslexic individuals can become highly successful students and adults.

(This is taken from the most scientifically valid and clinically accurate information available and presented in the book Overcoming Dyslexia, © Sally Shaywitz.)

Definitions and Characteristics of Dyslexia

Texas Education Code (TEC) §38.003 defines dyslexia in the following way:

"Dyslexia" means a disorder of constitutional origin manifested by difficulty in learning to read, write, or spell, despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and sociocultural opportunity. (TEC Section 38.003)
“Related disorders” include disorders similar to or related to dyslexia such as auditory imperception, dysphasia, specific developmental dyslexia, development dysgraphia, and developmental spelling disability.

The International Dyslexia Association defines “dyslexia” in the following way:

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.

Adopted by the IDA Board of Directors, Nov. 12, 2002. This Definition is also used by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD).

Students identified as having dyslexia typically experience primary difficulties in phonological awareness, including phonemic awareness and manipulation, single-word reading, reading fluency, and spelling. Consequences may include difficulties in reading comprehension and/or written expression. These difficulties in phonological awareness are unexpected for the student’s age and educational level and are not primarily the result of language difference factors. Additionally, there is often a family history of similar difficulties.

The following are the primary reading/spelling characteristics of dyslexia:

Difficulty reading words in isolation
Difficulty accurately decoding unfamiliar words
Difficulty with oral reading (slow, inaccurate, or labored)
Difficulty spelling

It is important to note that individuals demonstrate differences in degree of impairment.

The reading/spelling characteristics are most often associated with the following:

Segmenting, blending, and manipulating sounds in words (phonemic awareness)
Learning the names of letters and their associated sounds
Holding information about sounds and words in memory (phonological memory)
Rapidly recalling the names of familiar objects, colors, or letters of the alphabet (rapid naming)

Consequences of dyslexia may include the following:

Variable difficulty with aspects of reading comprehension
Variable difficulty with aspects of written language
Limited vocabulary growth due to reduced reading experiences

Sources for Characteristics and Consequences of Dyslexia:

Branum-Martin, L., Fletcher, J. M., & Stuebing, K. K. (2013). Classification and identification of reading and math disabilities: The special case of comorbidity. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 12, 906–915.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2007). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
The International Dyslexia Association. (2018). Knowledge and practice standards for teachers of reading, (2nd ed.).
Moats, L. C., & Dakin, K. E. (2008). Basic facts about dyslexia and other reading problems. Baltimore, MD: The International Dyslexia Association

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Dyslexia & Dysgraphia Resources

Dyslexia Screening

If the persistent achievement gap between dyslexic and typical readers is to be narrowed or even closed, reading interventions must be implemented early, when children are still developing the basic foundation for reading acquisition. The persistent achievement gap poses serious consequences for dyslexic readers, including lower rates of high school graduation, higher levels of unemployment, and lower earnings because of lowered college attainment. Implementing effective reading programs early, even in preschool and kindergarten, offers the potential to reduce and perhaps even close the achievement gap between dyslexic and typical readers and bring their trajectories closer over time. —Ferrer, et al., Achievement Gap in Reading Is Present as Early as First Grade and Persists through Adolescence, 2015

The importance of early interventions for students with reading difficulties cannot be overstated. In order for early interventions to be provided, a student must first be identified as at risk for dyslexia or another reading difficulty. The requirement in TEC §38.003 that all kindergarten and first-grade students be screened for dyslexia and related disorders is aligned with this shift to identify students at risk for dyslexia and reading difficulties when they are just beginning their formal education. Universal screeners generally measure reading or literacy-related skills such as sound-symbol recognition, letter knowledge, phonological awareness, and other skills.

Procedures for Dyslexia Evaluation and Identification

The identification and intervention process for dyslexia can be multifaceted. These processes involve both state and federal requirements that must be followed. The evaluation, identification, and provision of services for students with dyslexia are guided by both the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The law that applies to an individual student is determined by data and the student’s individual needs.

The determination to refer a student for evaluation must always be made on a case-by-case basis and must be driven by data-based decisions.

Process

Data gathering
- Cumulative data
- Environmental and socioeconimic factors
- Language proficiency
Initial evaluation
Formal evaluation

Domains to Assess

Academic skills
Cognitive processes
Possible Additional Areas: vocabulary, listening comprehension, verbal expression, written expression, handwriting, memory for letter or symbol sequences (orthographic processing), mathematical calculation/ reasoning, phonological memory, verbal working memory, processing speed

Components of Dyslexia Instruction

Phonological Awareness

Sound-Symbol Association

Sound-symbol association is the knowledge of the various speech sounds in any language to the corresponding letter or letter combinations that represent those speech sounds. The mastery of sound-symbol association (alphabetic principle) is the foundation for the ability to read (decode) and spell (encode). (Birsh, 2011, p. 19)

Explicit phonics refers to an organized program in which these sound-symbol correspondences are taught systematically. (Berninger & Wolf, 2009, p. 53)

Syllabication

A syllable is a unit of oral or written language with one vowel sound. The six basic types of syllables in the English language include the following: closed, open, vowel- consonant-e, r-controlled, vowel pair (or vowel team), and consonant-le (or final stable syllable). Rules for dividing syllables must be directly taught in relation to the word structure. (Birsh, 2011, p. 19)

Orthography

Morphology

Syntax

Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the process of extracting and constructing meaning through the interaction of the reader with the text to be comprehended and the specific purpose for reading. The reader’s skill in reading comprehension depends upon the development of accurate and fluent word recognition, oral language development (especially vocabulary and listening comprehension), background knowledge, use of appropriate strategies to enhance comprehension and repair it if it breaks down, and the reader’s interest in what he or she is reading and motivation to comprehend its meaning. (Birsh, 2011, pp. 9 and 368; Snow, 2002)

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